Table 5 Summary of design aspects that facilitate the organisation of feedback and enable each feedback loop phase

Feedup

1. Use direct observation for clarification of learning goals [50]

2. Encourage dialogic feedback for the co-construction of goals [50]

3. Focus feedback on students’ learning needs and known performance standards [30]

Feedback

4. Give students opportunities for clinical practice [35]

5. Enhance credible feedback through direct observation [33, 40, 46, 49, 84, 86]

6. Include formative assessments during authentic professional activities [46, 55]

7. Design WBAs during authentic tasks [39, 46, 56, 87]. The mini-CEX can provide feedback that improves students' clinical skills [58, 60]

8. Organise self-assessments before feedback encounters [46, 52]

9. Enhance bedside-teaching encounters to provide in-time feedback [74]

10. Use questions and interpretation checks to provide feedback on students´ performance [54], to clarify concepts and facilitate self-assessment [74]

11. Organise oral case presentations to improve communication skills [78]

12. Promote benchmarking of the same student over time (i.e., internal benchmarking), a peer, or formal guidance (i.e., external benchmarking) (e.g., a text or a guide of recommendations) [52]

Feedforward

13. Embed feedback in a two-way conversation [30]

14. Consider a follow-up on direct observation [46, 50]

15. Organise long-term use of WBA instruments [55]

16. Design low-stake WBA [31]

17. Enhance self-assessments when organising follow-up [68]

18. Organise formative mini-CEX with follow-up [39]

19. Use the mini-CEX as the structure for discussing the student's strengths and weaknesses and designing a written action plan [39, 80]

20. Include a “next step” box in the WBA instrument [44]

21. Implement a formative mid-rotation assessment to promote feedback conversations and co-create an action plan [59]

22. Consider using Apps to structure and store feedback to improve future performance [63]

23. Enable peer feedback for a better understanding and acceptance of feedback [52]

24. Promote safe and non-judgmental learning environments [67]