Table 2 Characteristics of the four educational roles

 Webster’s Dictionary “a person considered as a standard of excellence to be imitated.”

[51,52,53]

 Combination of personal characteristics (Heart), professional patient care (Hands-on), and teaching that involves continuously making the implicit explicit (Head). Being a role model, as opposed to being a teacher or a mentor when the moment calls for it, implies that the clinical trainer integrates the “3Hs” as a unity all the time and everywhere.

[54]

 everything faculty do in their being and acting as professionals both inside and outside the hospital

[55,56,57,58]

 Specific observable behaviour (as well as attitudes and values) to be emulated or even surpassed by residents

[58,59,60,61,62]

 Role modelling has been defined as “a way responses (specific observable behaviour as well as attitudes and values) can be learned or weakened through exposure to significant others”.

[62]

 Demonstration of clinical skills, modelling and articulation of expert thought processes and manifestation of positive professional characteristics

[63]

 Interactional, transactional process, which occurs simultaneously with multiple models and changes over time.

[64]

 Clinical skills training and knowledge transfer

[65,66,67,68,69,70,71]

 Professional outcome-based assessment

[66, 70, 71]

 Feedback provided for students after teaching or tutoring

[65, 66]

 Standardized program structure

[67, 68]

 Individualized

[72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81]

 Safe space for coached to make mistakes and learn

[73, 76, 77, 82, 83]

 Deliberate teaching with focused goals

[75, 82, 84,85,86]

 Individualized feedback through observation

[74,75,76,77, 79, 81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91]

 Repetition

[82, 87, 89, 90]

 Apprenticeship

[92]

 Clinical care under the oversight of a more senior physician

[92]

 Improve resident education through identifying trainee problems, provision of feedback and supporting trainee

[93,94,95,96,97,98]

 Ensure effective and safe patient care

[92, 93, 99]